'THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE"

In cosmology, the Big Bang is the scientific theory that describes the early development and shape of the universe.It is the most accepted theory for the origin and evolution of our universe. It states that at some time in the distant past there was nothing, around 10 to 14 billion years ago, the part of the universe we can see today was only a few millimeters across. According to this theory, at the beginning of time, all of the matter and energy in the universe was concentrated in a very dense state, from which it "exploded" and this is known as the Big Bang. 

From a dense, hot ball of gas, radiation and subatomic particles emerged. This exploded and began expanding rapidly outward. As it expanded it cooled and electrons, protons and neutrons formed. As the universe grew in size, the temperature dropped, which eventually formed huge numbers of Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium nuclei. After many millions of years the expanding universe, at first a very hot gas, thinned and cooled enough to condense into individual galaxies and then stars. Stars and galaxies began to form about one billion years following the Big Bang. It has since expanded from this hot dense state into the vast and much cooler cosmos we currently inhabit.

Provided the supporting evidence showed by an American astronomer Edwin Hubble for the Big Bang Theory, his 1929 discovery as the first evidence that the light of distant galaxies was generally shifted toward the red end of the spectrum, this is called the Red Shift.This happens when stars are moving rapidly away from Earth. This evidence means that it is obvious that the universe is expanding.The second evidence is that this theory predicts that 25 percent of the total mass of the universe should be the helium that formed during the first few minutes, an amount that agrees with observations.Thirdly, a cosmic background noise was the discovery in 1965, is received from every part of the sky. This background radiation has the same intensity and distribution of frequencies in all directions and is not linked with any individual celestial object. It has a black body temperature of -270 deg C and is interpreted as the electromagnetic remnant of the primordial fireball, stretched to long wavelengths by the expansion of the universe.

Other evidence that supports the big bang theory is the Isotropy of observable universe. Proponents of big bang also mention isotropy of the observable universe to one part in one hundred thousand as evidence that big bang is valid. They further state that what minute anisotropy does exist is consistent with big bang hypotheses which include the dark matter hypotheses.Also Quasars are predicted to only be possible in the early stages of an active cosmos by the Big Bang theory, and observation evidence supports this, as quasar populations become denser the further away when you look at them.

But the most convincing evidence is the presence of the cosmic background radiation, a theoretical prediction about photons left over from the big bang. The big-bang theory predicted this remnant radiation, which now glows at a temperature just 3 degrees above absolute zero. Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite, launched in 1989, showed that 99.97% of the radiant energy of the universe was released within the first year of the Big Bang event.

This Big Bang Theory was a scientifically detailed.

Cultural theory

God's 7 days creation:

The bible presents the creation of the universe by god in a literal seven day creation, however only taking six days to finish his work, and resting on the seventh day. God first created the all elements, then the environment, after that the animal kingdom and lastly but not least humans. This is how the bible informs us on God's universe creation.

1. The First Day, God said "Let there be light" and light was created.
2. The Second Day God created the waters, However there was no liquid water, no oceans. All of the water was in the form of a vapour, a "super fog". God then made most of the water to condense onto the cooling earth which straight away formed a whole planet of ocean and cleared the sky.
3. The Third Day God made the dry grounds. This is also where plate tectonics took place. The earth changed from a smooth one-level molten "cue ball" to a planet with an uneven surface with ocean basins and continental landmasses (countries). Dry ground resulted to the first plants grown.
4. The Fourth Day the sky was clear and you could see the sun, moon and stars. They were put here for a reason, to act as indicate our seasons, days, and years. Sunset and sunset equals one day. A moon cycle equals a month. And stars presented the seasons.
5. The Fifth Day a variety of birds and sea creatures were created and blessed.
6. The Sixth Day a huge amount of land animals was created, including man (later on women, known as Adam and Eve)
7.  The Seventh Day also known as the Sabbath Day was when God finally finished his work, and took a rest. He stopped creating anything else and rest of his work. He blessed this day and made it holly. This is why we go to church on Sunday, the seventh day, the Sabbath day.

This Cultural Theory was based on the Holy Bible where God's teachings were written.

"PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM"

The Planets in the Solar System

Inner Solar System 


The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the terrestrial planets and asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is shorter than the distance between Jupiter and Saturn. 


The Inner planets 


The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates, which form their crusts and mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth.

Mercury


 Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun measures 0.4 AU from the Sun and the smallest planet in the Solar System with 0.055 Earth masses. Mercury has no natural satellites, and it’s only known geological features besides impact craters are lobed ridges, probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury's almost negligible atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact, and that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy. 


Venus

Venus is close in size to Earth measures 0.7 AU from the Sun and 0.815 Earth masses, and, like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400°C, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.

Earth


Earth is the largest and densest of the inner planets measures 1 AU from the Sun. It is the only one known to have current geological activity, and is the only place in the Solar System where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.


Mars

Mars is smaller than Earth and Venus that measures 1.5 AU from the Sun with 0.107 Earth masses. It possesses an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 mill bars. Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Moons and rift valleys such as Valleys Mariners, shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red color comes from iron oxide in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites, Deimos andPhobos thought to be captured asteroids.


The Outer Solar System 


 The outer region of the Solar System is home to the gas giants and their large moons. Many short period comets, including the centaurs, also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles such as water, ammonia and methane, than the rocky denizens of the inner Solar System, as the colder temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid. The four outer planets, or gas giants sometimes called Jovian planets, collectively make up 99 % of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn are each many tens of times the mass of the Earth and consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium; Uranus and Neptune are far less massive and possess more ices in their makeup. For these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, “ice giants.” All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The term outer planet should not be confused with superior planet, which designates planets outside Earth's orbit and thus includes both the outer planets and Mars.


Jupiter

Jupiter measures 5.2 AU at 318 Earth masses, is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has 63 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.


Saturn

Saturn measures 9.5 AU, distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter's volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95 Earth masses, making it the least dense planet in the Solar System. The rings of Saturn are made up of small ice and rock particles. Saturn has 62 confirmed satellites; Titan and Enceladus, two of which show signs of geological activity, though they are largely made of ice. Titan, the second largest moon in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.


Uranus

Uranus measures 19.6 AU at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda. Neptune

Neptune


Neptune measures 30 AU, though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive equivalent to 17 Earth and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn. Neptune has 13 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen. Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans, which are in 1:1 resonance.





  Pluto

Pluto is the second-most-massive known dwarf planet in the Solar System and the tenth-most-massive body observed directly orbiting the Sun. Originally classified as the ninth planet from the Sun, Pluto was re categorized as a dwarf planet and Pluto due to the discovery that it is one of several large bodies within the newly charted Kuiper belt. Pluto is composed primarily of rock and ice and is relatively small: approximately a fifth the mass of the Earth's Moon and a third its volume. It has an eccentric and highly inclined orbit that takes it from 30 to 49 AU from the Sun. This causes Pluto to periodically come closer to the Sun than Neptune. Pluto has four known moons, the largest being Charon discovered in 1978, along with Nix and Hydra, discovered in 2005, and the provisionally named S/2011 P 1, discovered in 2011. Pluto and Charon are sometimes described as a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body.[21] The IAU has yet to formalise a definition for binary dwarf planets, and as such officially classifies Charon as a moon of Pluto.

The Importance of Coral Reefs and Mangroves.

CORAL REEFS

Coral reefs are often hailed as the rainforests of the sea; coral reefs can be termed as a type of living, marine organisms which secrete calcium carbonate, over a long period of time, to form a hard outer skeletal covering. Many people including me assume coral reefs to be plants or rocks. When I researched about it, I learned that coral reefs were polyps that grow along in large groups and in large areas. Polyps are tiny, cylindrical marine habitats. Coral reefs can be best understood to be a group of polyps that grow together. The Importance of the Coral Reefs:

Coral reefs are important because it is natural resources or habitat that we can be proud of. It isnt just a plant or animal-like but it is the place or the home of our marine animals. It is where they live and source of their food. Coral reefs help sustained the tropical marine ecosystems. Coral reefs form an important part of the tropical marine biology. The coral reefs maintain a balance of life with the mangrove and sea grass ecosystems near the coastal shores. Coral reefs support the food chain by being a food for tropical fish and other marine animals that serve as food for animals, higher in the food chain. This maintains the balance of the ecosystem. The coral reefs give our fishermen a big help to earned money to support their needs. They caught fishes to sell and provide food for us, as a consumers. In some areas, because of coral reefs, a business like resorts, it became one of their attractions to their guests in example in Boracay. It is important also in helping coastal areas especially those who live near the vicinity in preventing wave erosion or any other calamities that may happened in coastal areas. The disastrous hurricanes and tsunamis that sweep off life and property are lessened in their impact by coral reefs. Coral reefs are known to break the power of waves and reduce their intensity, thereby protecting coastal areas from destruction. Coral reefs can be called as nature's defense mechanism to prevent coastal soil erosion and flooding. Coral reefs also have contribution in medicine. It has a big help for us and their were also more studies that could help treat disease.

MANGROVES

Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow in tropical and subtropical tidelands throughout the world. Mangroves grow in areas that are frequently inundated with salt water due to tidal activity of gulfs, seas and oceans. Mangroves are able to thrive salt water inundation because of specialized rooting structures (such as prop roots and pneumatophores), specialized reproduction (live birth) and the ability to exclude or excrete salt. Mangroves grow exclusively in these tidal areas in large stands or groves to where these areas are referred to as their own ecological community.

The Importance of Mangroves: The mangrove community is valued for its protection and stabilization of low-lying coastal lands and its importance in estuarine and coastal fishery food chains. Mangrove forests protect uplands from storm winds, waves, and floods. The amount of protection afforded by mangroves depends upon the width of the forest. Mangroves can help prevent erosion by stabilizing shorelines with their specialized root systems. The relationship between mangroves and their associated marine life cannot be overemphasized. Mangroves provide protected nursery areas for fishes, crustaceans, and shellfish. Seventy-five percent of the game fish and ninety percent of the commercial species in south Florida are dependent on mangrove ecosystems (Law and Pywell FRC-43). They provide food for a multitude of marine species such as snook, snapper, tarpon, jack, sheep head, red drum, oysters, and shrimp. Many animals find shelter either in the roots or branches of mangroves. Mangroves serve as rookeries, or nesting areas, for beautiful coastal birds such as brown pelicans and roseate spoonbills.

Parts of the Ocean

Photic Zone:
• the top zone of the ocean where sunlight can penetrate and photosynthetic producers like algae can be found

Aphotic Zone:

• a permanently dark zone below the photic zone where light cannot penetrate. Any producers in this zone are chemosynthetic autotrophs.

Intertibal Zone:

• The area along coast lines that is exposed during low tides, but covered with water during high tides.

Coastal Ocean:

• The area extending from the low-tide line to the edge of the continental shelf which is usually w/i the photic zone.

Coral Reef:

• The areas in warm shallow waters that produce structures made from the calcium tons of coral animals.


Open Ocean:
• The area from the edge of the continental shelf outward.


Benthic Zone:

• The ocean floor of the coastal ocean and the open ocean.


Five layers of the Ocean:

Epipelagic Zone - The surface layer of the ocean is known as the epipelagic zone and extends from the surface to 200 meters (656 feet). It is also known as the sunlight zone because this is where most of the visible light exists.

Mesopelagic Zone - the mesopelagic zone, extending from 200 meters (656 feet) to 1000 meters (3281 feet). The mesopelagic zone is sometimes referred to as the twilight zone or the midwater zone.

Bathypelagic Zone - The bathypelagic zone, it is sometimes referred to as the midnight zone or the dark zone. This zone extends from 1000 meters (3281 feet) down to 4000 meters (13,124 feet).

Abyssopelagic Zone - the abyssopelagic zone, also known as the abyssal zone or simply as the abyss. It extends from 4000 meters (13,124 feet) to 6000 meters (19,686 feet).

Hadalpelagic Zone - Beyond the abyssopelagic zone lies the forbidding hadalpelagic zone. This layer extends from 6000 meters (19,686 feet) to the bottom of the deepest parts of the ocean. These areas are mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. The deepest point in the ocean is located in the Mariana Trench off the coast of Japan at 35,797 feet (10,911 meters).

"Hydrosphere and it's importance"

As we all know, Earth is the only planet that could able to support life. It has the right distance from the sun suitable for the life of existence. It is also composed of the atmosphere that has the right amount of gases that the life need to exist. The planet Earth also has WATER which covers about 70% in Earth's surface. In fact, Earth is often called "Blue Planet" because it ts mostly covered of water, that made up of freshwater in rivers and lakes, the saltwater of the sea oceans and estuaries, the groundwater and water vapor and together, all these water bodies are called HYDROSPHERE.

The Hydrosphere represents one components of the earth's system, operating in conjunction with the solid crust which is the lithosphere and the air that envelopes the planet which is the atmosphere. It really reflects the abundance and importance of the water on earth. Water is constantly being cycled through it's various manifestation and components of Earth's system by means of Hydrological cycle. The water is evaporated through ocean surface and distributed over the earth as water vapor and it returns to the earth through precipitation.
As humans, who were one of the users of the water, we sometimes to take our hydrosphere for granted and forgot the role of this part of the earth that plays in keeping us alive.

There are some important functions of the Hydrosphere that we need to know and understand. One of the most important of water is that it is essential to life. The daily use of human in daily living. Our body is consist of water. Approximately, human body is consist of 60% of water, blood is about 50% and our brain is 77% of water. It shows how really water essentials to us humans. Water also used as a domestic needs such as used in washing and cleaning. Without water we can't survive and the plants and animals we take as our food will not exist.
Hydrosphere provides a habitat, an important place for many animals and plants to live in Industry and even in forest. Many gases, nutrients, as well as ions are dissolved in water. The presence of these substances is critical for life existence because of water.
It also uses in regulating climate, one of water's unique characteristics is its specific heats which means the water takes a long time to heat up and a long time to cool down. It is helping in regulating the temperatures on earth so that they will stay within the range that is important for life to exist. One of this is the ocean currents help to disperse heat.
Water is also help in generating electricity through Hydro-power.

“Land Use Change Influences continental Water Cycle”

In Water cycle, water changes state in liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapor). The water gets into atmosphere through evaporation. Water vapor took place through the energy of the Sun. The water vapor that form from ice and snow through the process called sublimation and can evaporates from plants through the process called transpiration. Through condensation, the water vapor rises in the atmosphere and form into tiny water droplets which are the clouds, it combines and forms into big and heavy and stays in the air. Then it will collapse and fall in the ground in the form of rain, snow, and other type of precipitation.
The water cycle was not just made from the sea, ocean, and the like but also in land area such as in forest. Tropical forests play an important role in the global water cycle. One of the example of water cycle from forest were in Amazon forest were more than 50% responsible for the rainfall in Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Southern Brazil, where it feeds crops and rivers. Also in Africa, the Congo forest exports tons of water through the atmosphere to the West- African countries.
“Land use changes such as irrigation, dams, and deforestation, potentially affecting water resources in distant region influenced in water cycle according to Van der Ent.

In Moisture recycle, the water falling as precipitation in one region or country was originated from other or in a distant region. In other words, the moisture that recycled was originated as evaporation within the region. The role of moisture recycling patterns and the distribution of global water resources were covered by global wind patterns, topography, and land.
In other regions of the Earth, which are the regions that covered with forests they have excellent balance between moisture in the soil, evaporation from the soil and rain falling back to the soil. Regions that contain an abundance of plant life with an abundance of rain are so called rain forests.

In Deforestation, the forests evaporate the water to the atmosphere. According to the researcher named Miriam Gerrits,” the forests floors are responsible for evaporations in forests. When the forests will lose, it will result not only reducing the evaporation from the trees but also in reducing the evaporation from the forests floor. And that could result into global consequences for rainfall, water resources and food security when resulting into local decrease of evaporations.